Indexing Reviewer
INDEXING
by
Juan C. Buenrostro, Jr., Ed.D.
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge only becomes generally useful when it is made available by recording it, we do our best to ensure that it is permanently available to anyone who may need it, instead of ephemeral and limited to one individual.
Nowadays, the quantity of new information being generated is such that no individual can hope to keep pace with even a small fraction of it, and the problem that we have to face is that of ensuring that individuals who need information can obtain it with minimum of cost both in time and money, and without being overwhelmed by large amounts of irrelevant matter.
So instead of individual store of knowledge, we have the corporate store : the library; instead of the individual memory, we have the corporate memory : library catalogs and bibliographical tools.
Knowledge is what I know and information is what we know. Knowledge is restricted to individual who gains it, while information is knowledge shared by communication.
Indexing Languages
An INDEXING LANGUAGE is a complete set of index terms.
ITS USES ARE:
1. To allow the indexer to represent the subject matter of the documents in a consistent way.
2. To bring the vocabulary used by the searcher into coincidence with the vocabulary used by the indexer.
3. To provide means whereby a searcher can modulate a search strategy in order to achieve high recall or high precision as varying circumstances demand.
Components of Indexing Languages
1. VOCABULARY – this is composed of terms loosely called INDEX TERMS.
There are 2 types of Vocabulary:
1. Index vocabulary
2. Approach vocabulary
2. SYNTAX – this is the structure of the language.
THERE ARE 2 DEVICES TO ACHIEVE HIGH RECALL OR HIGH PRECISION.
1. Recall device
2. Precision device
Types of Indexing Languages
1. Controlled Vocabulary or Artificial Language – This uses standard list of subject headings.
2. Natural language – This uses the terms in the documents being indexed as they appear without modification.
3. Free language – There is no constraints in the terms that can be used in the indexing process.
Subject Indexing
Subject indexing is one of the processes involved in information analysis, the other being classification and cataloguing.
Although there is a formal distinction between these activities, characteristically, they have the same function which is to represent the contents of an information material in such a way that will facilitate its retrieval for the users.
While similar to subject cataloging, subject indexing implies greater specificity and depth of subject analysis as well as the inclusion of more kinds of materials.
Subject cataloging usually refers to the assignment of headings to represent the overall contents of complete bibliographic items within the catalog of a library, subject indexing is term used more loosely; it may refer to the representation of the subject matter of parts of complete bibliographic items as in the case of an index at the back or as a separate indexing periodical/services.
Subject cataloging is very selective thereby using a small number of terms to cover only the central subject matter of a document, while subject indexing is exhaustive which uses enough terms to cover the subject matter of a document rather completely.
Two Principal Steps in Subject Indexing
1. Conceptual Analysis
2. Translation
1. Conceptual Analysis
First and foremost, involves deciding what a document is all about, i.e. what it covers.
It involves the following activities:
a. Scanning a document, examining it for its content, what is being discussed or dealt with, what problem or theory is being expounded.
b. Skim the document by paying particular attention to the following:
the title;
the abstract if provided;
summary and conclusions;
the list of contents;
the introduction, opening phrases of chapters
& paragraphs;
illustrations, diagrams, tables and their
captions;
words or group of words which are underlined
or printed in unusual typeface.
2. Translation
The second step in subject indexing, involves the conversion of the conceptual analysis of a document into a particular set of index terms.
After the concepts/keywords that best represent the thought or the topic has been identified, the indexer will select the terms that can express these concepts without ambiguity.
These terms may be referred to as descriptors, subject headings, or keywords. of index terms.
Assignment indexing involves assigning terms to a document from a source other than the document itself.
A controlled vocabulary is basically an authority list which is actually known as indexing tools such as Sear’s List of Subject Headings, LC, List of Subject Headings, bibliographic classification schemes such as DDC, UDC and LC, thesaurus that deals on a specific area.
Pre-Coordinate Indexing System
DEFINITION: This is a conventional Indexing system where the index terms are combined at the time of indexing. The index is already done before a search is made. The searcher cannot manipulate the searched terms. The pre-coordinate index is final.
Examples are:
1. Periodical Indexes
2. Bibliographies
3. Title Derivative Indexes, e.g. KWIC and KWOC
Permuted Indexing
DEFINITION: It is like a cycle index wherein each term in a string is moved to the leftmost position to become an entry point, the remaining terms being listed after it. It is similar to a rotation index.
For Example: Index terms, A, B, C, D, E, will be listed on the following format:
ABCDE
BCDEA
CDEAB
DEABC
An index that uses this type of indexing system is the EXCERPTA MEDICA.
Another example is PRECIS indexing or context dependency – which adopts two line, three part format.
EXAMPLE: “Development of Small Industries in Backward areas of Cavite”
CAVITE Backward Areas. Small Industries. Development.
BACKWARD AREAS. CAVITE. Small Industries. Development.
SMALL INDUSTRIES. BACKWARD AREAS. CAVITE. Development.
DEVELOPMENT. SMALL INDUSTRIES. BACKWARD AREAS. CAVITE.
SAMPLE OF KWIC
Fig. 1 Sample entries from a KWIC Index : KWIC Index of Rock Mechanics Literature. (1973)
SAMPLE OF KWOC
Fig. 2 Sample entries from a KWOC Index : KUS Government Reports, vol. 1 (1963)
CONCLUSION
Libraries form an essential part of the chain of human communication.
Knowledge is stored not in the mind of the individual alone but on the corporate store, i.e. the library.
Information is stored and retrieve not in the brain of the individual alone but on the corporate memory, i.e. index. In the literature of library and information science, a distinction is sometimes made among the three terms subject indexing, subject cataloging, and classification.
APPROACHES TO INDEXING and ABSTRACTING LIBRARY MATERIALS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Index – a tool which indicates to a user the information or source of information that one needs
Indexing – process of identifying and assigning index terms to a document, either to describe its physical characteristics, give facts about its creation or distribution, or describe its contents
Abstract – an abbreviated, accurate representation of the significant contents of a document. It is usually accompanied by an adequate bibliographic description to enable the user to trace the original document.
Abstracting – process of analyzing the significant contents of a document in order to come up with a brief and accurate representation of that document.
PURPOSE OF INDEXING & ABSTRACTING
To construct representations of documents in a form that is suitable for the users to browse through in
* machine-readable form
* microform
* printed form
* card form
USES OF INDEXES
Facilitate reference to the specific item or to locate wanted information
Disclose relationships
Make the information storage & retrieval system useful to individuals
Serve as filter to withhold irrelevant materials
Provide a comprehensive review of a subject field
Give nomenclature guidance
USES OF ABSTRACTS
Promote current awareness
Save reading time of the user
Facilitate selection
Help overcome the language barrier
Facilitate literature searches
Improve indexing efficiency
Aid in the preparation of reviews & bibliographies
PRINCIPLES OF INDEXING
EXHAUSTIVITY – extent to which a document is analyzed to identify its subject content
Exhaustive indexing – the use of numerous index terms to completely cover the major and minor themes of a document
Selective indexing – the use of a few terms to cover only the main or major theme of a document
Examples of Selective and Exhaustive Indexing
1. Title of document:
Women’s rights: eternal principles, changing forms
Subject of document:
Reinterpreting the Koran on the role, status and rights of Muslim women
2. Title of document:
Final indignities: tracking aged wanderers
Subject of document:
Elderly folks who suffer from dementia and who wander far from home can be tracked down using an electronic transmitter
SPECIFICITY – the extent to which the indexing system permits one to be precise when specifying the subject of a document
CONSISTENCY – extent to which agreement exists on the terms to be used to index contents of documents.
Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or among indexers.
Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent to himself/herself.
PRINCIPLES OF ABSTRACTING
BREVITY
ACCURACY
CLARITY
LEVELS OF INDEXES
BACK-OF-THE BOOK INDEXES – these are lists of words or group of words, generally alphabetical, found at the back of books; these give page locations of the subjects, names, or titles.
PERIODICAL / NEWSPAPER INDEXES – indexes to articles and columns found in journals and newspapers; these are usually done by a team of indexers and last for an an indefinite period of time.
COMPUTER-BASED INDEXES – these rely much on the computer to construct indexes; these may apply either the automatic indexing process where the indexer uses a computer to construct indexes, or computer-assisted indexing where computers do the mundane work while a human still does the intellectual task of indexing. These include keyword and permuted title indexes (KWIC and KWOC); chain indexes; string indexes such as PRECIS, NEPHIS, POPSI; and citation indexes.
STANDARDS IN INDEXING and ABSTRACTING
Standards in indexing and abstracting are essential.
Define what an index/abstract is
Describe the nature and types of indexes and abstracts
Provide guidelines concerning the indexing and abstracting processes and presentation and style of indexes and abstracts
Do not attempt to regulate procedures
Represent the criteria for measuring and assessing indexes and abstracts
Result of our collective history of experience
Attempt to codify experience and successful tradition
Promote consistency and uniformity
STANDARDS IN INDEXING
International Standard
Methods for Examining Documents, Determining Their Subjects, and Selecting Index Terms. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization, 1985. ISO 5963-1985 (E)
Based on Unesco’s Guidelines for indexing principles. 1975.
Indexing manuals issued by different international information systems and other organizations:
FAO-AGRIS. Guidelines for bibliographic description and input sheet preparation. Rev. 2, 1979.
IAEA-INIS. Subject indexing samples. 1976.
Standards governing the content and layout of published indexes of books, etc.
ISO 999-1975 Index of a publication
INDEXING PLAN
This is a record of major indexing decisions and policies which are made and written in advance of any actual indexing activity.
Rationale:
* Ensure completeness and consistency of access to subjects and documents
* Keep the index within reasonable limits
* Ensure that the indexer follows the
decisions and practices of the library
* Avoid inconsistencies
ELEMENTS OF AN INDEXING PLAN
Statement on the users of the index
Documents to be indexed
Parts of documents to be indexed
Concepts to be indexed
Exhaustivity/Specificity of the index
Index language to be used
Integration/segregation of indexes
Format and arrangement
INDEXING METHODS
DERIVED INDEXING – words and phrases are extracted verbatim from the document to represent the subject content
ASSIGNED INDEXING –words and phrases taken from the document are translated/converted to standard terms
INDEXING LANGUAGES
NATURAL LANGUAGE – uses terms/words found in documents as index entries.
Characteristics:
Tends to improve recall because it provides more access points but reduces precision
Redundancy is higher
Terms used are current
CONTROLLED VOCABULARY (Artificial language) – a subject authority list that enables an indexer to establish a standard term for each concept and use that term whenever necessary.
Controls synonyms by choosing one term as the standard one
Distinguishes homographs, e.g., Spring (season), Spring (body of water), etc.
Types of Controlled Vocabulary:
1. Subject Headings List – follows an alphabetical arrangement of terms and covers a broad area of knowledge. Used primarily to index book length documents.
Examples:
Sears List of Subject Headings
Library of Congress Subject Headings
Medical Subject Headings
Subject Headings for Engineering
2. Thesaurus – a controlled and dynamic vocabulary of semantically and generically related terms representing concepts belonging to a specific discipline or field of study.
Examples:
Macrothesaurus
Unesco Thesaurus
Women’s Thesaurus
Thesaurofacet ILO Thesaurus
Syndetic Devices Used By Controlled Vocabularies
1. USE and UF to indicate the equivalence (synonymous) relationship of terms
*USE indicates that a standard term is preferred
*UF indicates the approach terms synonymous to the entry term
2. BT and NT references to represent the hierarchical relationship of terms
BT (broader term) indicates the broader or general term vis-à-vis the entry term
NT (narrower term) indicates the more specific or narrower term vis-à-vis the entry term
3. RT reference to indicate the associative or nonhierarchical relationship of terms.
RT (related term) indicates the terms to which the entry term is associated or related.
4. Parenthetical qualifiers to resolve semantic
ambiguity.
Examples: Beam (Radiation)
Beam (Structure)
SUBJECT INDEXING
Process of determining the subject content of a document and representing this in index terms.
Primarily consists of subject/conceptual analysis and translation into standard terms.
Steps:
Record bibliographic data
=> Author. Title. Publication data, etc.
2. Subject/Conceptual Analysis – Examine title of article, abstract or summary, text and other references.
3. Statement of the subject content in one’s own language or that of the author.
4. Translation/conversion to standard terms taken from chosen controlled vocabulary.
5. Preparation of index entries.
BOOK INDEXING PROCESS
1. Communicate with the publisher, author, or editor regarding the issue of size & format of the index including no. of pages;
2. Scan the book 3 to 4 times; take note of the objectives of the author and get a broader understanding of what the book is about.
* Indexer writes notes on the margins of book or underlines words or phrases s/he deems important.
Indexer must have decided on the level of specificity to be used based on the length of the index, the readers’ info. needs and the subject content of the book.
Indexer must have a plan on the structure (i.e., main index terms and subdivisions) and format of the index (e.g., number of columns per page).
3. Check on the page numbers of the book.
4. Record the terms which s/he deems significant on slips or cards along with the page locators and file these slips in a box.
* Indexer must decide on the form of entry, necessary cross references (see & see also), hierarchical relationships, etc.
Examples: Integration of languages and scripts or Languages and scripts, Integration of
ROM (Read Only Memory), 294
CHIPS (California Highway Patrol), 171
Chips (Microprocessors), 75, 188-89, 288
History of information organization.
See Development of
information organization
Information retrieval (IR)
history, 51
verbal subject analysis for, 136
5. Review entries for:
* consistency of index terms;
* duplication of index terms and entry;
* cross referencing;
* spelling;
* alphabetization; and
* other omissions
6. Type/encode entries in the desired format.
7. Review for omissions and typographical errors.
PERIODICAL/NEWSPAPER INDEXING
Both processes involve a stricter discipline, a wider knowledge concerning information throughout the world and unswerving consistency and uniformity in the assignment of index terms.
Both cover a greater amount and variety of articles, features and columns.
Both processes are performed by several people and carried out over a long period of time.
PERIODICAL/NEWSPAPER INDEXING PROCESS
Read through the article, news article or column and do subject analysis.
Write in pencil all the appropriate index terms pertinent to the article on: a slip of paper, an indexing worksheet, or along the margin of the article.
Write the following bibliographical elements using the sequence indicated below:
3.1 Name(s) of author/correspondent/columnist in the following format:
Surname, Given name Middle initial
Examples: Siytangco, Deedee N. Vepa, Victor; Garcia, Mitos.
3.2 Record the complete title of the article or column. Record and enclose general column title in square brackets.
Examples: No - Kintanar deal – AFP
Capas bones identified today
Multinational’s gripe [Point of order]
3.3 Write title of journal or newspaper in abbreviated form following a standard list of abbreviated titles of periodicals. Underline or italicize the abbreviated periodical/newspaper title.
Examples: Philipp J Manila Bull
J Doc Inquirer
3.4 For journal articles, record:
volume number, issue number enclosed in parentheses, particular pages where article appears and date of publication
Example:
10 (2): 22-45 Ag 25 ’03
For newspaper articles/columns, record:
date of publication, page and column references
Example:
N 7 ’03, 1:3 D 5 ’02, 6:1-3
Sample author and subject entries for a periodical article:
1. Yu, Anson. Binondo, barely breathing.
Philipp Graphic 14(17) : 42-43 O 6 ‘03
2. BINONDO, MANILA
Yu, Anson. Binondo, barely breathing.
Philipp Graphic 14 (17) : 42-43 O 6 ‘03
Sample author and subject entries for a newspaper article:
Villanueva, Marichu. ‘Oakwood II’
denounced. Philipp Star N 14 ’03, 1+:5-6
2. COUP D’ETAT – PHILIPPINES
Villanueva, Marichu. ‘Oakwood II’
denounced. Philipp Star N 14 ’03, 1+:5-6
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Indexing and Abstracting
PNU Department of Library and Information Science Review 2011
DIRECTIONS: Choose and encircle letter of the best answer.
A stand-in or representation of a document’s topics.
Summary c. Keyword
Surrogate d. Catalog
The process of analyzing and providing a brief, accurate and clear representation of the significant contents of a document.
Cataloging c. Summarizing
Indexing d. Abstracting
These are factors to be considered in deciding which materials should have abstract, except
Economic constraints c. Significant materials
Length of the whole material d. Subject interest of the user
Another term for a descriptive abstract
Indicative abstract c. Slanted abstract
Informative abstract d. Critical abstract
The type of abstract is considered appropriate for research reports, theses and dissertations.
Structured abstract c. Indicative abstract
Critical abstract d. Informative abstract
This is a type of abstract that is evaluative and the abstractor expresses views on the quality of the work of the author and even makes comparisons with the works of other authors.
Slanted abstract c. Indicative abstract
Critical abstract d. Informative abstract
The physical carrier of organized information which may be print, non-print or electronic in format.
Document c. Message
Database d. Data
The following are considered document surrogate, except
Bibliography c. Abstract
Annotation d. Index
ANSI stands for
American National Standards Institution c. American National Surrogates Institute
American National Society of Indexers d. American National Standards Institute
An index is a __________, which is data about data, indicating the characteristics and relationships of the information in the data items and other data items that are similar.
Descriptor c. Bibliography
Metadata d. Reference
The following can be used to describe a book with poor indexes or no indexes at all, except
Incomplete c. Totally useful
Penalized readers d. In a way, cheated on the readers
A condensed, representative surrogate of a knowledge record. A narrative description of a document, which may include pertinent data and critical comments.
Summary c. Index
Abstract d. Catalog
This refers to the exponential increase in information generation which was deemed uncontrollable unless information is properly organized for retrieval.
Information retrieval c. Data storage
Information explosion d. Databases
These are abstract prepared by the acknowledged specialists in the subject field.
Author prepared abstracts c. Professional abstractors
Discipline oriented abstracts d. Subject-expert oriented abstracts
The type of abstract that is considered to be the most appropriate for medical journals.
Slanted abstract c. Discipline-oriented abstract
Structured abstract d. Author-prepared abstract
A controlled vocabulary provides for semantic structuring which was designed to provide the following except
Control synonyms by choosing one form as a standard
Facilitate easy search
Distinguish among homographs
Link together terms whose meanings are most closely related
The _____________ is a key device in identifying information for retrieval and users will often depend on it to help them decide if the material is useful or not.
Author’s name c. Name of publisher
Title d. Date of publication
This journal first published in 1665 was considered to be the first abstract journal
Journal des Psychologie c. Journal des Philosophie
Journal des Scavans d. Journal des Matematica
This type of abstract provides the content of the original paper without data or comment. It simply describes what type of record is being abstracted and what it is about.
Critical abstract c. Indicative abstract
Informative abstract d. Slanted abstract
In the 1850s, he published an index that began the modern concept of single publication indexing multiple issues of periodicals.
Melville Dewey c. John Cotton Dana
W.H. Poole d. D. W. Scott
The ideal length of abstract for notes and short communications is __________ words.
250 c. 30
100 d. 300
These are non-relevant documents retrieved as a result of a semantic breakdown.
Hits c. Keywords
Search results d. False drops
A brief but accurate representation of the contents of a document.
Summary c. Abstract
Index d. Annotation
Of the four things that can happen in using an index, the good one is
You do not find any information although it is there
You find information, but it is not what you thought it would be
You find information and it is exactly what you need
You find a part of the information that you need
A list of terms derived directly from the text of a document.
Keywords c. Controlled vocabulary
Search terms d. Uncontrolled vocabulary
The following are considered forms of controlled vocabulary, except
Classification schedules c. subject authority files
Thesauri d. Dictionary
An index term identified as the preferred representation for the aboutness of a topic in a document.
Descriptor c. Entry
Keyword d. Extract
A vocabulary of approved list of words that can be used as index terms and to manage synonyms and near synonyms and to bring together semantically related terms.
Free texts c. Semantics
Controlled vocabulary d. Uncontrolled vocabulary
This refers to the degree to which retrieved informational materials satisfies the needs of the user.
Relevance c. Precision
Recall d. Search result
The quantitative ratio of the number of retrieved relevant documents to the total number of relevant documents in a collection.
Recall c. Search results
Precision d. Keyword
Abstracts are used to find
A particular known item suggested from a reference
A comprehensive overview of a field, subfield, or concept in the field
Other works by an author recently discovered by the user
All of the above
This refers to an alphabetical index of the words appearing in a text with a pointer to the precise point at which each word occurs.
Subject headings c. Abstract
Concordance d. Controlled vocabulary
This is the key unit in the reference of an abstract because it provides the location of the paper. It should be accurate and consistent and follows some standard conventions for citing.
Funding agency c. Author affiliation
Publication source d. Title
This step in abstracting involves reviewing all the points in a document and deciding which ones are important.
Recording the reference c. Writing the annotation
Content analysis d. Identifying the abstractor
Ordinarily, the normal order of indicating information of an abstract would be
Title, reference, signature, body
Reference, body, signature
Title, body, reference, signature
Body, reference, signature
These are indexes to the content of individual monograph publications, which are usually placed at the end of the book and subject and name terms are arranged alphabetically.
Name indexes c. Book indexes
Author indexes d. Journal indexes
An ISO standard that provides for the guidelines for preparing and presenting abstracts, subject analysis, style to be used and length of abstract.
ISO 214 c. ISO 999
ISO 5964 d. ISO 5963
An abstract that is aimed at mission-oriented activity, emphasizing selected material from the original documents.
Informative abstract c. Slanted abstract
Indicative abstract d. Critical abstract
How do abstracts save the time of the reader?
Abstracts are usually shorter than the whole paper
Abstracts indicate the major content of the whole paper
Abstracts gave the subject coverage of the whole paper
Abstracts generally give useful information about the whole paper
According to F. W. Lancaster, a modular abstract is consists of five parts: an annotation, an indicative abstract, an informative abstract, a critical abstract and ____________
Citation c. Subject headings
Bibliography d. Summary
The number one common sense criteria in evaluating an abstract is that it should
Exclude unimportant information
Represent what the item is all about
Be error free
Be brief and readable
A list of terms in a special subject, field, or area of usage, with accompanying definitions often included as part of a book or monograph.
Glossary c. Index
Dictionary d. Reference
Refers to a highly structured abstract designed primarily for searching by computer.
Indicative abstract c. Critical abstract
Mini-abstract d. Informative abstract
An abstractor should omit information that readers would be likely to know or that may not be of direct interest to them. This might include
Results of the study c. Background or historical information
Methodology d. Conclusion
A type of automatic indexing in which the significant words in a string are rotated and displayed, surrounded by the other words in the string.
KWIC c. KWAC
KWOC d. KWAD
This is the representation of terms in headings by making every possible combination of terms.
Permuted index c. Alphabetical index
Numeric index d. Open-end index
An abbreviated version of a document created by drawing sentences from the document itself.
Abstract c. Summary
Extract d. Annotation
An indexing scheme that combines single terms to create composite subject concepts.
Pre-coordinate indexing c. Coordinate indexing
Post-coordinate indexing d. Derivative indexing
A plan or method for systematically identifying useful data or documents in an information storage file.
Search strategy c. Search formulation
Keywords d. Search terms
The list that saves the time of the users because it prevents from using such terms included in the list which are not used as keywords or access points.
Authority list c. Stop list
Controlled vocabulary d. Thesaurus
Good quality abstracts has the following characteristics
Accuracy, originality, brevity c. Acceptability, accuracy, brevity
Clarity, brevity, accuracy d. Relevance, clarity, accuracy
The suggested length of abstract for thesis and dissertation is ______________ words.
250 c. 300
100 d. 30
The ratio of the number of relevant documents retrieved to the total number of documents retrieved
Recall c. Search result
Precision d. Keyword
A type of indexing where terms are combined prior to searching wherein it is not easy to combine terms at the time a search is performed.
Post-coordinate indexing c. Automatic indexing
Pre-coordinate indexing d. Probabilistic indexing
An authority file of terms that shows the full scope of each term along with its relationship to broader terms, narrower terms, and related terms.
Thesaurus c. Controlled vocabulary
Dictionary d. Uncontrolled vocabulary
Someone who prepares an index is called
Bibliographer c. Indexer
Librarian d. Abstractor
A type of string indexing popularized by Derek Austin and developed for the British National Bibliography and the Australian National Library
NEPHIS c. CIFT
PRECIS d. POPSI
POPSI stands for
Postulate Based Permuted Subject Indexing
Postulate Permuted Subject Index
Postulate Permutation Subject Index
Permuted or Postulate Subject Index
These are universal, unique and permanent identification tags for online content that is registered in an online directory and cover any form of digital files including text, image, video, audio and even software.
URL c. IPs
DOIs d. Search engine
An entry in an index, in which a user’s chosen word matches a word in the index, giving the user a starting point in the search.
Access point c. Search term
Keyword d. Added entry
An analytic-synthetic classification system developed in 1933 by S. R. Ranganathan.
Library of Congress Classification c. Dewey Decimal Classification
Colon Classification d. Universal Classification
A word from the natural language of a document that is considered significant for indexing.
Summary c. Abstract
Keyword d. Search term
A _____________________ list is a related group of words or phrases adopted by a particular group of people to be used in an indexing activity. It implies a controlled vocabulary where indexers must adhere to when preparing a document.
Keyword c. Name
Authority d. Subject
This refers to the range of topic coverage of an indexed document.
Exhaustivity c. Consistency
Specificity d. Summarization
An ANSI accredited association responsible for the development of the Z39 series.
ALA c. ISO
NISO d. British Standards Association
The development of the KWIC automated system is credited to
W.F. Poole c. Hans Peter Luhn
John Cotton Dana d. S. R. Ranganathan
PRECIS stands for
Preserved Context Index System c. Preserved Content Index System
Pre-Coordinate Index System d. Preserved Concise Index System
A thesaurus or part of a thesaurus containing terms to a delimited field of knowledge.
Minithesaurus c. Microthesaurus
Macrothesaurus d. Authority list
Verbose writing is a no-no in abstracting. Choose the more concise form for “in the shape of a rectangle”
Shape c. Rectangular
Rectangle d. Shapely
This is the type of indexing language generally preferred by users or subject specialists.
Controlled indexing c. Assigned indexing
Natural language indexing d. none of the above
An index first published in 1900 by H.W. Wilson notable for the emphasis it placed on subject access and good referencing.
Index Medicus c. Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature
Index to the Social Sciences d. ALA Index to Periodical Literature
When you search the entire document looking for matches of natural language terms, you are doing
Surfing c. Natural language searching
Free-text searching d. Scanning
In __________________ indexing, it is the indexer who determines the index terms at the time of indexing.
PRECIS c. Postcoordinate
Controlled d. Precoordinate
The words “torn” and “thorn” are examples of
Eponyms c. Antonyms
Homonyms d. Synonyms
It consists of a list of articles, with a sublist under each article of subsequently published papers that cite the article.
Citation index c. Alphabetical index
Author index d. Classified index
A thesaurus with general index terms to a broad field of knowledge.
Minithesaurus c. Microthesaurus
Macrothesaurus d. Authority list
A type of index whose entry points are people, organizations, corporate authors, government agencies and the like are called
Alphabetical index c. Book index
Author index d. Periodical index
Which of the following statements do not describe the similarity between a thesauri and subject headings list?
Both are made up of single terms and bound terms to represent single concepts
Both provide subject access to information by providing terminology that can be consistent
Both choose preferred terms and make references from non-used terms
Both provide hierarchies so that terms are presented in relation to their broader, narrower and related terms
The result of the combined effects of exhaustivity and specificity in an index.
Indexing system c. Controlled vocabulary
Depth of indexing d. List of subject headings
The following are considered document surrogates, except
Annotation c. Summary
Extract d. Keywords
Term or terms used to clarify homonyms
Qualifiers c. Determinants
Clarifiers d. Descriptors
The process of bringing like things together on the basis of similarities and differences. The systematic arrangement in sets of categories according to established criteria.
Cataloging c. Indexing
Classification d. Absracting
Indexing system developed for the Modern Languages Association (MLA)
POPSI c. CIFT
NEPHIS d. PRECIS
The following are the acknowledged uses of indexes, except
Give indications on the relationships among terms found in the document
Identify relevant information
Help in the development of services of the library
Help in minimizing efforts by users in searching relevant information
Primarily, Scope Notes (SN) are provide to
Define an entry c. Provide keywords
Avoid ambiguities d. Help in content analysis
________________ serve as models and guidelines for the analysis of documents and referred to for consistency and uniformity
Indexing tools c. Indexing standards
Indexing vocabulary d. Indexing procesures
Simply put, this is the use of computers in indexing.
Derivative indexing c. Manual indexing
Automatic indexing d. Coordinate indexing
The combination and modification of terms to form headings and multilevel headings or to form search statements.
Vocabulary c. Syntax
Semantics d. Diction
This type of indexing attempts to minimize missing useful entries by presenting the single entries in a classified index, one by one in an alphabetical list
Faceted indexing c. String indexes
Chain indexing d. Citation indexes
In a list showing hierarchical relationships of concepts, the term one step lower than the term being considered is the
NT c. RT
BT d. None of the above
A presentation of the substance of a body of material in a condensed form or by reducing it to its main points Is called a
Extract c. Annotation
Summary d. Terse literature
An indexing software designed to assist an indexer working from printed proofs, text on disk, the author’s manuscript or an already completed book .
Authex Plus c. MACREX
CINDEX d. WINDEX
The process by which the subject matter or content of a document is represented in an index
Content analysis c. Abstracting
Cataloging d. Subject indexing
A “stop list” can be best defined as
List of words that mean stop
List of words included in an index
List of words not used as keywords
List of words that signals the indexer to stop indexing
__________ terms are words that allow the user to enter the vocabulary structure of an index. If these are not allowable descriptors, these will refer the user to a term that is acceptable.
Preferred c. Identifier
Entry d. Keyword
A subject-author guide to articles published by the US National Library of Medicine.
MEDLINE c. PubMed
Index Medicus d. MeSH
Refer to the connectives used to combine terms for searching in post-coordinate systems.
Boolean operators c. Search strategy
Conjunctions d. Information retrieval
An indexing software that provides for a spreadsheet approach to data entry and editing.
CINDEX c. SKY Index
Authex Plus d. MACREX
In the preparation of a back-of-the-book index, the _________________ indexing system is applied.
Post-coordinate c. Pre-coordinate
Permuted d. Derivative
The development of NEPHIS (Nested Phrase Indexing system was attributed to
Timothy C. Craven c. W. H. Poole
S. R. Ranganathan d. C. A. Cutter
INDEXING OF PERIODICAL ARTICLES
Indexing Principles
The main purpose of indexing and abstracting is to construct representations of published items in a form (printed form, machine-readable, or in card form) suitable for inclusion in some type of database.
Index - a tool which indicates to a user the information or source of information that one needs.
Indexing - process of identifying and assigning index terms to a document, either to describe its physical characteristics, give facts about its creation or distribution, or describe its contents.
Uses of Indexes
1. Facilitate reference to the specific item or to locate wanted information.
2. Disclose relationships
3. Make the information storage and retrieval system useful to individuals
4. Serve as filter to withhold irrelevant materials
5. Provide a comprehensive review of a subject field.
6. Give nomenclature guidance
Periodical Indexes
Periodical - A vital key to the science communication process. It is where primary research is reported, and where, in fact, most information found in books originally appeared.
Periodical indexes - are open-ended projects, usually done by a number of people, covering perhaps years, with shift in subject emphasis and indexing objectives.
Two Types of Periodical Indexes
1. Individual indexes to individual journals
2. Broad indexes to a group of journals.
Individual indexes to individual journals - the publisher of the journal prepares an index, usually for a volume and at the end of a year’s run of the journal.
The approach to this kind of indexing can range from a simple, uncontrolled vocabulary to a complex indexing system with a thesaurus.
Information retrieval - systematic recall of logically stored information.
Steps in Subject Indexing
1. Conceptual analysis
2. Translation
Conceptual Analysis involves deciding what a document is about-that is, what it covers. Effective subject indexing involves deciding not only what a document is about but also why it is likely to be of interest to a particular group of user.
The indexer, then, must ask several questions about an item:
1. What is it about?
2. Why has it been added to our collection?
3. What aspects will our users be interested in?
Translation - involves the conversion of the conceptual analysis of a document into a particular set of index terms. In this connection, a distinction can be made between indexing by extraction (derivative indexing) and indexing by assignment.
Indexing by extraction - words or phrases actually occurring in a document are selected to represent its subject matter.An early form of derivative indexing, known as Uniterm, used only single words to represent subject matter.
Assignment indexing - involves assigning terms to a document from a source other than the document itself.
A controlled vocabulary is basically an authority list. In general, an indexer can only assign to a document terms that appear on the list adopted by the agency for whom he works.. It will generally incorporate some form of semantic structure. In particular , this structure is designed to:
1. Control synonyms by choosing one form as the standard and referring from all others;
2. Distinguish among homographs.
3. Bring or link together those terms whose meanings are most closely related. Two types of relationships may be explicitly identified: the hierarchical and the nonhierarchical (or associative) relationship.
Three major types of controlled vocabularies
1. Bibliographic classification schemes (such as Dewey Decimal Classification)
2. List of subject headings
3. Thesauri
All attempt to present terms both alphabetically and systematically.
Bibliographic classification - the alphabetical arrangement is secondary, in the form of an index to the major arrangement, which is hierarchical.
Thesaurus - the overt arrangement of terms is alphabetical but a covert hierarchical structure is built into the alphabetical list through the use of cross references.
Subject headings - is similar to the thesaurus in that it is alphabetically based. It differs from the thesaurus because it incorporates an imperfect hierarchical structure and fails to distinguish clearly between the hierarchical and the associative relationship.
Indexing as Classification
1. Subject Indexing
2. Subject Cataloging
3. Classification
Subject Cataloging - usually refers to the assignment of subject headings to represent the overall contents of complete bibliographic items (books, reports, periodicals, and so on) within the catalog of a library.
Subject indexing - refer to the representation of the subject matter of parts of complete bibliographic items as in the case of an index at the back of a book.
Classification - Librarians tend to use the word to refer to the assignment of class numbers (drawn from some classification scheme -e.g. Dewey Decimal [DDC], Universal Decimal [UDC], Library of Congress [LC] to bibliographic items, especially for the purpose of arranging these items on the shelves of libraries, in filing cabinets, and so on.The fact is that, classification, in the broadest sense, permeates all of the activities associated with information storage and retrieval.
Document classification refers to the formation of classes of items on the basis of their subject matter
Indexing Practice
1. A combination of reading and skimming is usually advocated.
2. The title, abstract, summary and conclusions, section headings and captions to illustrations or tables are also worth more attention. The rest of the text should be skimmed to ensure that the more condensed parts give an accurate picture of what the item is about.
3. The entire document (parts read, parts skimmed) and the terms assigned should reflect the whole.
The international standard on subject indexing (ISO 5963-1985 [E] ) offers further guidance on the examination of the document:
Important parts of the text need to be considered:
A.) the title
B.) the abstract, if provided
C.) the list of contents
D.) the introduction, the opening phrases of chapters and paragraphs, and the conclusion
E.) illustrations, diagrams, tables and their captions.
Exhaustivity of Indexing
Exhaustivity - extent to which a document is analyzed to identify its subject content.
Exhaustive indexing - the use of numerous index terms to completely cover the major and minor themes of a document.
Selective Indexing - The use of a few terms to cover only the main or major theme of a document.
Selective Indexing - The use of a few terms to cover only the main or major theme of a document.
Depth - denotes the opposite of breadth and is more appropriately applied to the specificity dimension.
Consistency - extent to which agreements exist on the terms to be used to index contents of documents.
Inter-indexer consistency - refers to the agreement between or among indexers.
Intra-indexer consistency - refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent to himself/herself.
Levels of Indexes
Back of the book indexes – these are lists of words or group of words, generally alphabetical, found at the back of books; these give page locations of the subjects, names, or titles.
Periodical / Newspaper indexes – indexes to articles and columns found in journals and newspapers; these are usually done by a team of indexers and last for an an indefinite period of time.
Computer-based indexes – these rely much on the computer to construct indexes; these may apply either the automatic indexing process where the indexer uses a computer to construct indexes, or computer-assisted indexing where computers do the mundane work while a human still does the intellectual task of indexing. These include keyword and permuted title indexes (KWIC and KWOC); chain indexes; string indexes such as PRECIS, NEPHIS, POPSI; and citation indexes.
Two Fundamental Rules of Indexing
1. Include all the topics known to be of interest to the users of the information service that are treated substantively in the document.
2. Index each of these as specifically as the vocabulary of the system allows and the needs or interests of the users warrant.
Types of Indexes
Author Indexes - Indexes whose entry points are people, organizations, corporate authors, government agencies, universities, and the like.
Alphabetical Index - is based on the orderly principles of letters of the alphabet and is used for the arrangement of subject headings, cross-references, and qualifying terms, as well as main headings.
Classified Indexes - are especially useful for generic searches when the retrieval is aiming for classes of documents.It is arranged in a hierarchy of related topics, starting with generic topics and working down to the specific.
Coordinate Indexing
Coordinate Indexes are created by combining two or more single index terms to create a new class. For example, if the individual index terms “Black,” “Polecats,” and “Texas” are combined, the result is a distinctive class: Black Polecats of Texas.
A classic example of a coordinate index is the
marginal-hole punched card system
Post-Coordinate Indexes
- An information retrieval system that allows a search to combine terms in any way is frequently referred to as post-coordinate (post combination or manipulative are other terms that have been used)
Characteristics of Post-Coordinate Indexing
1. Terms can be combined in any way when a search is performed.
2. The multidimensionality of the relationships among terms is retained.
3. Every term assigned to a document has equal weight - one is no more important than another (although weighted indexing maybe used)
How was Post-Coordinate Indexing Done?
Each document to be indexed was first assigned accession number or serial number, and was then analyzed so that its subject is represented by an accession number.
The accession number pertaining to a given document was then entered under each of these index terms in order to retrieve document numbers for documents that cover the specific subjects represented by a combination of index terms.
Three Techniques in Post Coordinate Indexing
1. W. E. Batten Method
2. Calvin Mooers Method
3. Mortimer Taube - Uniterm System
Features of Post-Coordinate Indexing System
1. None of the entries in the system is specific
2. There is usually a larger number of entries in a post-coordination indexing system.
3. The number of different headings in the index is relatively small.
Problems in Post-Coordinate Indexing
The greatest potential problem in using postcoordinate indexes is known as false coordinating or false drops.
There is a danger in losing relevant documents without ever knowing it.
A too narrow search can do this
The user considerably worries that something has been missed
Pre-coordinate Indexing System
Also know as Nonmanipulative indexes where the coordination is done at the indexing stage. This type of indexing is necessary in traditional printed indexes.
This system treats composite subjects as units and settle on integrated subject descriptors.
Terms are selected from a chosen index language and are arranged in an order dictated by the language and the system.
The resultant subject heading represents the subject as a whole and an entry can be filed under the heading for any document that matches the subject.
Indexes to books and indexes in book form are examples of precoordinate indexes. KWIC and KWOC are precoordinate indexes.
Indexing Languages
-is generally defined as all the words permitted either to describe a specific document or to construct a query to search a document file, along with the rules describing how the terms are to be used and in what relation to each other.
Uses of Indexing Language in the Indexing Process
1. To allow the indexer to represent the subject matter of the documents in a consistent way.
2. To bring the vocabulary used by the searcher into coincidence with the vocabulary used by the indexer.
3. To provide means whereby a searcher can modulate a search strategy in order to achieve high recall or high precision as varying circumstances demand.
Components of Indexing Languages
1. Vocabulary (i.e. set of terms)
Index vocabulary - descriptors
Approach vocabulary - lead-in terms
2. Syntax (i.e. grammatical structure)
Recall devices - group terms together into classes of one type or another so that such devices will allow improvements in recall in search operation and will make the index consistent.
Precision Devices - devices that when used with association with terms will increase the shades of meaning of the terms.Hence, will improve precision in both indexing and search operations.
Types of Indexing Languages
1. Natural language
2. Vocabulary Control or artificial language
3. Free language
Natural-Language Indexing
Derived-term systems are sometimes called natural-language or free-text indexing, because the system allows the indexer to select the terms to be used directly from the text being indexed, or in automatic systems, the terms are selected by the computer.
Since the terms are picked out of the text itself, this approach may also be called indexing by extraction.
Weaknesses of Natural Language Indexing
1. The use of derived terms begins from scratch and are eventually accumulated.
2. Vocabulary tends to grow in its accord in its accord as new documents are added.
3. When a collection of documents is interpreted in various ways and there is no attempt at vocabulary control, complete chaos can eventually develop, rendering the index basically useless.
When the flexible syntax of natural language is formalized by permitting only certain constructions, then we are using structured language.
The uniterm systems developed in the early days of information retrieval are examples of natural language indexing.
Vocabulary control or artificial language
This is basically an authority list. The use of an artificial language enables us to use concept indexing. In concept indexing, we try to establish a standard description for each concept and use that description each time it is appropriate, whether it has been used by the author or not.
Three major types of controlled vocabularies
1. Classification schemes, e.g. Dewey Decimal Classification, Library of Congress Classification, Universal Decimal Classification, Colon Classification, etc.
2. Lists of subject headings, e.g. Sear’s List of Subject Headings, Library of Congress Subject Headings, Medical Subject Headings, etc.
3. Subject thesaurus, e.g. Popline Thesaurus, Education Thesaurus, Physics Thesaurus, etc.
Characteristics of a Controlled Vocabulary
1. It represents the general conceptual structure of a subject area and presents a guide to the user of the index.
2. The terms are derived as nearly as possible from the vocabulary of use.
3. It employs a considerable number of precoordinate phrases to reduce false drops to a minimum.
4. It supplies a standard vocabulary by controlling synonyms and near synonyms in order to increase consistency.
5. Where necessary it defines ambiguous terms and distinguishes homographs.
6. Through cross-references it shows horizontal and vertical relationships among terms.
Free Language
The free-text language does not consist of a list of terms distinct from those used to describe concepts in a subject area.
Indexing is free in the sense that there is no constraints on the terms that can be used in the indexing process.
It is the nature of a free language that any word or term that suits the subject may be assigned as an indexing term.
The terms may be computer or human assigned although free language is commonest in a computer-indexing environment.
Types of Index Terms
1. Keywords - are the raw words that come from the literature.
2. Descriptors - are terms that have been defined for use by the Thesaurus
3. Identifiers - are proper noun
4. Entry terms - words that allow the user to enter vocabulary structure.
Dictionary Requirements
1. Association
2. Use of Appropriate Words
3. Decision Record
Authority Lists
A formal list of the words in the controlled vocabulary, showing the formal relationships between words and spelling out how they are to be used.
Ambiguity is solved by referring to the authority list as the final arbitrator in vocabulary control.
If indexers or researchers are unsure of what terms are to be used, they consult this authority list for direction.
The Thesaurus
The thesaurus is a tool that is used to control alphabetical indexing languages.
In thesauri, descriptors are often dependent on other terms and are intended to be combined with other terms. The relationships between terms are more specific in Thesaurus.
Terms in the thesaurus are meant to be combined with other terms to express more specific concepts.
In some thesauri, descriptors can be manipulated.
Approaches in the construction of Thesaurus
1. Theoretical approach or Enumerative - the committee is usually made up of subject specialists who provide words they think are appropriate, drawing the terms from their own expertise, from previously constructed indexing languages, from dictionaries, and other basic reference tools in the field.
2. Empirical approach - begins with the literature and the users of the literature and often includes such quantitative methods as a count of the frequency of word use in the subject area.
Tools in Theoretical Approach
1. Classification schemes and subject headings - These schemes and lists, especially those designed for special collections in the fields to be covered by the thesaurus, are very valuable sources.
2. Review articles - are generally definitive works covering a broad field or a specific subfield.
3. Monographs - particularly in the science and technology, serve as periodical synthesizers of the primary literature.
4. Basic reference tools - handbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other reference tools deal with terminology in a subject field.
Steps in Thesaurus Construction
1. Identify the subject field.
2. Identify the nature of the literature to be indexed.
3. Identify the users.
4. Identify the file structure.
5. Consult published indexes, glossaries, dictionaries, and other tools in the subject areas for the raw vocabulary.
6. Cluster the terms
7. Establish term relationships
INDEXING
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge only becomes generally useful when it is made available by recording it, we do our best to ensure that it is permanently available to anyone who may need it, instead of ephemeral and limited to one individual.
Nowadays, the quantity of new information being generated is such that no individual can hope to keep pace with even a small fraction of it, and the problem that we have to face is that of ensuring that individuals who need information can obtain it with minimum of cost both in time and money, and without being overwhelmed by large amounts of irrelevant matter.
So instead of individual store of knowledge, we have the corporate store : the library; instead of the individual memory, we have the corporate memory : library catalogs and bibliographical tools.
Knowledge is what I know and information is what we know. Knowledge is restricted to individual who gains it, while information is knowledge shared by communication.
Indexing Languages
An INDEXING LANGUAGE is a complete set of index terms.
ITS USES ARE:
1. To allow the indexer to represent the subject matter of the documents in a consistent way.
2. To bring the vocabulary used by the searcher into coincidence with the vocabulary used by the indexer.
3. To provide means whereby a searcher can modulate a search strategy in order to achieve high recall or high precision as varying circumstances demand.
Components of Indexing Languages
1. VOCABULARY – this is composed of terms loosely called INDEX TERMS.
There are 2 types of Vocabulary:
1. Index vocabulary
2. Approach vocabulary
2. SYNTAX – this is the structure of the language.
THERE ARE 2 DEVICES TO ACHIEVE HIGH RECALL OR HIGH PRECISION.
1. Recall device
2. Precision device
Types of Indexing Languages
1. Controlled Vocabulary or Artificial Language – This uses standard list of subject headings.
2. Natural language – This uses the terms in the documents being indexed as they appear without modification.
3. Free language – There is no constraints in the terms that can be used in the indexing process.
Subject Indexing
Subject indexing is one of the processes involved in information analysis, the other being classification and cataloguing.
Although there is a formal distinction between these activities, characteristically, they have the same function which is to represent the contents of an information material in such a way that will facilitate its retrieval for the users.
While similar to subject cataloging, subject indexing implies greater specificity and depth of subject analysis as well as the inclusion of more kinds of materials.
Subject cataloging usually refers to the assignment of headings to represent the overall contents of complete bibliographic items within the catalog of a library, subject indexing is term used more loosely; it may refer to the representation of the subject matter of parts of complete bibliographic items as in the case of an index at the back or as a separate indexing periodical/services.
Subject cataloging is very selective thereby using a small number of terms to cover only the central subject matter of a document, while subject indexing is exhaustive which uses enough terms to cover the subject matter of a document rather completely.
Two Principal Steps in Subject Indexing
1. Conceptual Analysis
2. Translation
1. Conceptual Analysis
First and foremost, involves deciding what a document is all about, i.e. what it covers.
It involves the following activities:
a. Scanning a document, examining it for its content, what is being discussed or dealt with, what problem or theory is being expounded.
b. Skim the document by paying particular attention to the following:
the title;
the abstract if provided;
summary and conclusions;
the list of contents;
the introduction, opening phrases of chapters
& paragraphs;
illustrations, diagrams, tables and their
captions;
words or group of words which are underlined
or printed in unusual typeface.
2. Translation
The second step in subject indexing, involves the conversion of the conceptual analysis of a document into a particular set of index terms.
After the concepts/keywords that best represent the thought or the topic has been identified, the indexer will select the terms that can express these concepts without ambiguity.
These terms may be referred to as descriptors, subject headings, or keywords. of index terms.
Assignment indexing involves assigning terms to a document from a source other than the document itself.
A controlled vocabulary is basically an authority list which is actually known as indexing tools such as Sear’s List of Subject Headings, LC, List of Subject Headings, bibliographic classification schemes such as DDC, UDC and LC, thesaurus that deals on a specific area.
Pre-Coordinate Indexing System
DEFINITION: This is a conventional Indexing system where the index terms are combined at the time of indexing. The index is already done before a search is made. The searcher cannot manipulate the searched terms. The pre-coordinate index is final.
Examples are:
1. Periodical Indexes
2. Bibliographies
3. Title Derivative Indexes, e.g. KWIC and KWOC
Permuted Indexing
DEFINITION: It is like a cycle index wherein each term in a string is moved to the leftmost position to become an entry point, the remaining terms being listed after it. It is similar to a rotation index.
For Example: Index terms, A, B, C, D, E, will be listed on the following format:
ABCDE
BCDEA
CDEAB
DEABC
An index that uses this type of indexing system is the EXCERPTA MEDICA.
Another example is PRECIS indexing or context dependency – which adopts two line, three part format.
EXAMPLE: “Development of Small Industries in Backward areas of Cavite”
CAVITE Backward Areas. Small Industries. Development.
BACKWARD AREAS. CAVITE.
Small Industries. Development.
SMALL INDUSTRIES. BACKWARD AREAS. CAVITE. Development.
DEVELOPMENT. SMALL INDUSTRIES. BACKWARD AREAS. CAVITE.
SAMPLE OF KWIC
Fig. 1 Sample entries from a KWIC Index : KWIC Index of Rock Mechanics Literature. (1973)
SAMPLE OF KWOC
Fig. 2 Sample entries from a KWOC Index : KUS Government Reports, vol. 1 (1963)
CONCLUSION
Libraries form an essential part of the chain of human communication.
Knowledge is stored not in the mind of the individual alone but on the corporate store, i.e. the library.
Information is stored and retrieve not in the brain of the individual alone but on the corporate memory, i.e. index. In the literature of library and information science, a distinction is sometimes made among the three terms subject indexing, subject cataloging, and classification.
Comments
Post a Comment